For nearly seven hundred years, a curious and unsettling practice prevailed among affluent Europeans: the consumption of Egyptian mummies. This bizarre phenomenon, rooted in a historical misinterpretation, led to a thriving market for human remains, transforming ancient relics into perceived health elixirs. The practice, known as 'mumia,' was believed to cure a wide array of ailments, from common colds to more severe conditions like epilepsy and paralysis. This disturbing trend highlights a unique intersection of historical medical beliefs, cultural misunderstanding, and the exploitation of ancient heritage for commercial gain.
A Historical Glimpse into the Curious Case of Mumia
The peculiar tradition of ingesting mummified remains in Europe began its ascent in the 12th century, stemming from a crucial mistranslation of the Arabic term 'mūmiyah.' Originally referring to bitumen, a natural asphalt with recognized medicinal uses in classical and Islamic traditions, the term became conflated with the resinous dark coating found on Egyptian mummies. This linguistic twist inadvertently linked the ancient preserved bodies with potent healing properties, sparking an unprecedented demand across European apothecaries.
Bitumen, a viscous petroleum substance abundant around the Dead Sea, had been revered for its therapeutic qualities since antiquity. Roman polymath Pliny the Elder documented its extensive medicinal applications, ranging from treating blood flow to alleviating gout. Esteemed Muslim scholars, like Avicenna, continued this legacy, prescribing 'mūmiyah' for various neurological and physical conditions. However, when European translators, such as Gerard of Cremona in the 12th century, encountered these texts, they erroneously interpreted 'mūmiyah' as a substance derived from embalmed corpses, specifically those from ancient Egyptian tombs.
This misapprehension fueled a burgeoning trade. Astute merchants in Alexandria, recognizing the lucrative potential, began systematically plundering Egyptian tombs. They would dismember the mummified bodies, grinding them into a fine powder or extracting their supposed medicinal 'oils,' which were then exported to Europe. This 'mumia' became a highly sought-after commodity, readily available in pharmacies and even carried by royalty, such as the French King Francis I, who reputedly always had a personal supply on hand. The English College of Physicians, in their official pharmacopeia from 1618 to 1747, even described its taste as 'somewhat acrid and bitterish.' Illustrious figures like Sir Francis Bacon and Robert Boyle endorsed its use for various physical traumas, solidifying its place in European medicine.
Egyptian authorities were largely resistant to this widespread desecration. Records from 1428 reveal the capture and torture of individuals involved in mummy trade, who confessed to boiling mummified bodies to extract oils for sale. Despite legal prohibitions, enforcement was often weak, especially when influential Europeans offered bribes. A notable instance involved Englishman John Sanderson in 1586, who, after exploring a sepulchre and obtaining fragments of mummified remains, managed to depart Egypt with 600 pounds worth of body parts through strategic payments.
The insatiable demand also led to the rise of a counterfeit market. Many 'mumia' suppliers in Egypt resorted to using freshly deceased individuals, including executed criminals, plague victims, and enslaved people, to produce the desired product, as sourcing ancient mummies proved more arduous. Italian traveler Ludovico di Varthema chronicled how 'mumia' was produced from recent desert casualties, contrasting it with the more esteemed but scarce 'embalmed bodies of kings and princes.' In reality, most authentic 'mumia' came from commoners, a fact conveniently overlooked by European elites who preferred to believe their remedies originated from ancient royalty.
The concept of 'mumia' eventually evolved beyond Egyptian mummies. Influential physician Paracelsus proposed that the medicinal benefits stemmed from a 'life energy' within corpses, advocating for the use of freshly deceased bodies, particularly young, healthy men who died suddenly. This broader practice of 'corpse medicine' extended to consuming blood from executed individuals for general health and epilepsy, and applying human fat-soaked bandages to wounds, showcasing a macabre facet of historical medical beliefs.
By the 16th century, skepticism began to emerge among some medical professionals. French surgeon Ambroise Pare, a critic of 'mumia,' argued against its efficacy, noting that it often caused adverse reactions. German physician Leonhart Fuchs meticulously traced the historical translation errors that led to the belief in 'mumia,' denouncing the 'stupid credulity' of those who continued to prescribe it. Cultural critics, like English philosopher Thomas Browne, lamented the destruction of invaluable Egyptian heritage, famously stating, 'The Ægyptian Mummies... avarice now consumeth.' French writer Michel de Montaigne even highlighted the hypocrisy of condemning cannibalism in the New World while Europeans consumed human flesh medicinally. Despite growing concerns, the 'mumia' trend persisted, with its peak in the 18th century, and traces of its sale, such as in a 1908 Merck catalogue, extended into the early 20th century.
Beyond medicine, Egyptian mummies found other macabre uses. In 19th-century Europe, 'mummy unwrapping parties' became a grotesque form of entertainment for the elite. Additionally, 'mummy brown,' a pigment made from ground mummified bodies, was a popular paint color from the mid-18th to 19th centuries, notably used in Eugene Delacroix's famous 'Liberty Leading the People.' The last tube of this pigment was astonishingly produced in 1964. While claims of mummies being used as fertilizer, paper, or even locomotive fuel might be exaggerated, they underscore the profound disrespect with which these ancient remains were treated, viewed as mere commodities rather than invaluable cultural artifacts.
The consumption of Egyptian mummies in Europe, while now relegated to the annals of history, serves as a stark reminder of humanity's past medical misconceptions and cultural exploitation. Although we no longer ingest human remains for health, the underlying issues of cultural and physical resource extraction from less powerful nations by the global north persist. The continued sale of human bones from regions like India for curiosities and medical tools, despite bans, and the display of colonized peoples' remains in Western museums, echo the historical objectification and commodification of other cultures. In essence, the tragic saga of mumia underscores that while the forms of exploitation may change, the fundamental dynamics of power and appropriation often remain disturbingly constant.
The high peaks of the Karakoram are presenting an exceptionally formidable challenge this season, with numerous climbing teams forced to reassess or abandon their ambitious objectives due to unseasonably warm temperatures and a notable lack of crucial ice. This adverse weather pattern has transformed the already treacherous rock faces into even more hazardous terrain, leading to frequent and unpredictable rockfall. As a result, mountaineers who typically rely on solid ice formations for safe passage are finding themselves navigating unstable conditions, making progress exceedingly difficult and increasing the inherent risks of high-altitude ascent.
Amidst these challenging environmental factors, the spirit of exploration and endurance persists. Despite the setbacks, climbers are adapting their strategies, seeking alternative routes, and demonstrating remarkable resilience in the face of nature's formidable obstacles. This season serves as a stark reminder of the delicate balance between human ambition and the uncontrollable forces of the natural world, emphasizing the critical importance of flexibility and safety in the pursuit of mountaineering achievements.
Challenging Ascents: Gasherbrum IV and Near K2 Aspirations Halted
The prevailing dry and arid conditions gripping the Karakoram range this summer have proven to be a decisive factor, compelling a French climbing duo, Charles Dubouloz and Symon Welfringer, to call off their endeavor on Gasherbrum IV's renowned Shining Wall. Their aim was to complete a challenging line first attempted in 2006 by Jordi Corominas, a route known for its sustained technical difficulty and the added demands of near 8,000-meter altitude. The critical issue encountered was the severe scarcity of stable ice, which is indispensable for safe progression across the mountain's mixed terrain. High-altitude rock in this region is inherently fragile, and the absence of firm ice makes it exceedingly perilous for climbers to secure their ascent. This unforeseen climatic obstacle ultimately necessitated a change in their plans, shifting their focus to Gasherbrum II.
Furthermore, a Madison Mountaineering expedition faced similar environmental adversities during their acclimatization climb near K2. The team had planned a pioneering ascent of a smaller, unclimbed peak, utilizing it as a crucial step in their preparation for the formidable K2. This innovative strategy, previously employed successfully in the Himalayas, aimed to provide unique acclimatization opportunities. However, after enduring a night of intense climbing, they reached the summit ridge only to encounter perilous, unstable rock formations. These dangerous conditions, characterized by precarious gendarmes and loose rock, compelled them to retreat, underscoring the widespread impact of the current dry spell across the Karakoram. The incident highlights the unpredictable nature of these high-altitude environments and the need for climbers to prioritize safety when faced with such challenging and unstable conditions.
Adapting to Nature's Demands: Strategic Shifts and Persistent Pursuits
In response to the formidable and uncooperative weather patterns, the French mountaineering team of Dubouloz and Welfringer have strategically redirected their efforts towards Gasherbrum II, an 8,035-meter peak where they will now attempt the standard route. While acknowledging that this pivot diverges from their initial, more ambitious objective, Dubouloz conveyed on social media that it represents the most sensible and pragmatic course of action given the circumstances. This tactical adjustment underscores a prevalent theme among climbers in the region this season: the necessity of adapting plans in the face of unprecedented environmental challenges. Gasherbrum II, though a significant objective in its own right, presents a more viable option under the current conditions, offering a less technically demanding ascent route that aligns better with the prevailing lack of stable ice and increased rockfall risks.
The broader climbing community in the Karakoram is also exhibiting similar adaptability. While the number of climbers on Gasherbrum II is relatively modest this year, with only 32 individuals reported by Karakoram Tours Pakistan, teams are diligently working to establish infrastructure. Ropes have already been fixed up to Camp 2, signaling progress despite the adverse conditions. Concurrently, the mountaineering world awaits updates from Denis Urubko and Maria Cardell, who embarked on an alpine-style attempt last Friday to forge a new path on Nanga Parbat's Diamir face. Their estimated five-day push suggests their return to basecamp is imminent. These ongoing endeavors, whether revised or as originally conceived, vividly illustrate the unwavering determination of climbers to pursue their passions, even when confronted by nature's formidable and increasingly unpredictable temperament.
A harrowing mountain rescue unfolded recently on Mount Williamson, California's second-highest peak, demonstrating the extreme challenges and coordinated efforts required in high-altitude emergencies. On July 2, an urgent distress signal was received from a climber just beneath the summit of the 4,383-meter peak. The climber, who remained anonymous, had suffered a severe fall, resulting in serious injuries, including a compound fracture, and the loss of essential gear. Compounding the perilous situation, a severe thunderstorm descended upon the area, bringing lightning and heavy rain, which significantly hampered initial rescue attempts. The rugged terrain of Mount Williamson, known for its difficult, unmaintained trails and loose scree, further complicated access for rescuers, trapping the injured individual for many hours.
The multi-agency rescue operation faced immediate hurdles due to the harsh conditions. California Highway Patrol's helicopter was initially unable to reach the stranded climber because of the storm's intensity. Despite the weather, additional resources were rapidly mobilized, with the China Lake Naval Air Weapons Station assisting in transporting search-and-rescue personnel closer to the site. Rescuers persevered, with volunteers continuing on foot through the night to reach the base of the west face by sunrise. Although verbal contact was established with the climber, the treacherous landscape prevented immediate ground access. As the weather briefly improved, two rescuers were successfully deployed by helicopter approximately 100 meters above the climber, eventually reaching her 23 hours after her initial fall. The challenge then shifted to extraction, with the high altitude proving too much for some rescue helicopters, necessitating the deployment of the California National Guard's Blackhawk Spartan 164. In a testament to perseverance, the climber was finally hoisted to safety 28 hours after her ordeal began, receiving immediate medical attention at a hospital.
This remarkable rescue underscores the inherent dangers of mountaineering, especially when venturing off established routes on challenging peaks like Mount Williamson. The incident also shines a light on the incredible bravery and resilience of both the injured climber, who maintained remarkable composure despite her critical condition, and the dedicated search and rescue teams from various agencies. Their seamless collaboration, unwavering commitment, and strategic adaptation to constantly changing circumstances were pivotal in transforming a dire situation into a successful outcome. Such events serve as a powerful reminder of the vital role played by emergency services and the profound human spirit of perseverance in the face of adversity, inspiring us all to value courage, preparedness, and collective action.